Washington Irving is regarded as one of the earliest and strongest voices of romanticism in America, but what is often overlooked is his close connection with English and Continental romanticism. His role as popularizer of such romantic elements as early American history, the scenery of the Hudson River and the Catskills, and the Indian has long been acknowledged, but his exploitation of European materials has not been fully explored, or so it seems to me. In the ensuing remarks I hope to suggest something of the range and intensity of Irving's romanticism, both in its use of native materials and in its exploitation of a variety of European elements. Indeed, Irving's work in acquainting Europeans with American romantic topics was counterbalanced by his introduction of European romantic materials to American readers. Until his Sketch Book took England by storm and soon made its way into the hands of Continental readers in translation as well as in English, readers on the eastern side of the Atlantic had only limited acquaintance with American writers of any sort. The condescending verdicts of English critics effectively curbed circulation of American fiction, drama, and essays, and most readers abroad were not inclined to sample American writing, even if they could find it. Although Sir Walter Scott had expressed delight with Knickerbocker's History, it was only when The Sketch Book appeared that n was recognized as a writer with a felicitous style, touching emotional appeal, and a sensitive appreciation of the culture and traditions of England. Thus a new awareness of American literary potential manifested itself.

His earliest writing reflected many of the neoclassical attitudes and practices found in his beloved Oliver Goldsmith and in The Spectator of Addison and Steele. Character types, humor, parody, and satire in the letters of Jonathan Oldstyle and in the sketches and social commentary of Salmagundi had a strong eighteenth-century flavor, as did many of the passages in Knickerbocker's History, but by the time Irving was writing for the Analectic Magazine and editing its pages a few years later he revealed increasingly romantic attitudes toward his material. Although Irving reflected many of the romantic tendencies of the early nineteenth century, there is little evidence that he was much concerned about the theoretical aspects of romanticism or reflected upon them. His was a kind of intuitive, emotional reaction to impressions derived from his travels, his conversation, and his reading. That these impressions coincided with the prevailing attitudes of the times was largely fortuitous. It must be emphasized that Irving was not a theoretician or a philosopher; he was only a sensitive individual recording his reactions in a manner which readers of the time found appealing.

His romantic attitudes were nurtured as a result of his grand tour to France, Italy, and England from 1804 to 1806. Repeatedly in his journals and letters he remarked about romantic scenery, especially in the mountains with their varied and spectacular wildness. Like his English and Continental counterparts, he expressed his emotional reaction to the spectacle which unfolded before him. Irving's travels in southern France and Italy exposed him to the colorful activities and customs of the natives, and his encounters with mouldering ruins and his explorations of the old churches and their vaults filled with skeletons made him aware of the past and the long-established traditions and also gave him a firsthand glimpse of some of the macabre elements he had encountered in Mrs. Radcliffe and other Gothic writers. To a young, impressionable mind the sights of southern Europe opened new romantic vistas which were later reflected in his writing.

In his early writings Irving frequently used the word "romantic" to convey his sense of wonder and awe. Variants and embellishments of the phrase "romantic scenery" appeared regularly in his journals, letters, and published writings, and the romantic outlook seems firmly fixed in his imagination, to appear in various ways for the next half century. Without doubt Irving's youthful exposure to European scenery and attitudes conditioned and strengthened his romantic predisposition.

When he returned to New York in 1806, he plunged almost immediately into the writing of Salmagundi, a literary venture which he carried out with his brother, William, and with James Kirke Paulding. As a literary miscellany, Salmagundi was too narrow and provincial in scope to attract the attention of overseas readers. However, it provided Irving with a training ground in which to introduce romantic elements to offset the dominant neoclassical tone of the sketches, essays, and poems. Emotion and sentiment counterbalanced crude satire and carping criticism. The same mixture can be found in Knickerbocker's History of New York with its strokes of broad humor and caricature along with the individualism, iconoclasm, petulance, and emotionalism of some of the Dutch leaders.

Further manifestations of romanticism appear in his contributions to the Analectic Magazine. Appearing during the struggle with the British in the period from 1812 to 1815, many of these pieces, either written or selected by Irving, emphasized nationalism, patriotism, and indigenous elements of the American scene. They represent a skirmish in the "paper war" or literary nationalism which complements the economic and military battles fought in other segments of American society. They show Irving's growing dedication to the romantic outlook.

When Irving went to England in 1815 to assist in the overseas operation of the faltering family importing business, he had the opportunity to develop and extend his romantic proclivities. Upon his arrival he observed that "[t]he country is enchanting."( 1 ) His travels through the English, Welsh, and Scottish countrysides enabled him to savor the picturesque scenery and untamed vistas. For him Kenilworth Castle was a "magnificent wreck of feudal grandeur" with an air "of opulence, and power and lordly superiority,"( 2 ) and "the valleys or rather glens of Derbyshire are beautifully romantic."( 3 ) As he sailed along the eastern coast of Scotland on one occasion, he spoke of "the excitement of my feelings in this romantic part of my voyage,"( 4 ) and he found Edinburgh "the most picturesque romantic place I have ever seen except Naples."( 5 ) Wherever he traveled in Britain, the scenery stirred his romantic spirit.

Visits to John Murray's drawing room and to London publishers provided him with further opportunities to expand and intensify his romantic disposition. As he listened to Isaac D'Israeli's anecdotes and read a letter of Lord Byron's which Murray showed him, he became more aware of the manifestations of the romantic mood in the English literary establishment, a feeling which was enhanced by the talk of Thomas Moore Lalla Rookh and the speculation about Scott's authorship of the Waverley novels.( 6 ) Such heady gossip stirred Irving's feelings and caused him to study these writers with added interest. Later, when economic circumstances forced him to turn to his pen for his livelihood, he could emulate the techniques and draw upon the ideas and feelings which brought these writers fame, if not fortune.

In The Sketch Book, Irving produced a literary work, a miscellany, which displayed many facets of the romantic temperament. The satire, parody, and burlesque of Knickerbocker's History had been dropped; instead, Irving introduced humor, sentiment, strong appeals to the emotions, Gothic elements, reverent appreciation of the past, admiration of the beauties of nature, New World elements like the Indian, topographical descriptions of both Old and New World settings, and sensitive reactions to local customs and folklore. These elements were greatly admired by popular readers, and n's felicitous style appealed to sophisticated readers not ordinarily attracted to the sentimental and sensational. Consequently, through his happy combination of subjects and methods Irving was able to attract and engage a body of transatlantic readers who ordinarily would not converge on the same body of reading material. . .