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Prevailing ideologies -- socialist, nationalist, and Utopian and the styles identified with them -- Social Realism, Regionalism, and geometric abstraction -- lost credibility in their eyes. Unwilling to continue known directions or to accept any other dogma, the Abstract Expressionists turned to their own private visions and insights in an anxious search for new values. The urgent need for meanings that felt truer to their experience gave rise to new ways of seeing -- to formal innovations. full text »  ▪   Aesthetics, Psychology, and Cognition Aesthetics, Psychobiology, and Cognition Aesthetics has been defined in various ways. We shall define the term as referring to the study of how stimuli defined as being artistic or beautiful induce disinterested pleasure. Philosophical aestheticians have argued for centuries that aesthetic pleasure is different from other sorts of pleasure in that it is disinterested. By this, they mean that one is not interested in possessing or using the stimulus. full text »  ▪   American Art American Painting and Sculpture During the last sixty years American art has assumed a commanding position in the Western art world. If new movements did not start in the United States, they seemed to flourish there as exuberantly as in any other country. Fueled by an expansive economy that showed signs of reaching its limits in the middle 1980s, art galleries, art schools, and art publications, as well as private and public foundations, provided artists with unprecedented means of support, instruction, and access to a public hungry for quality and novelty. It seemed, as a result, that more art was produced in the last generation than in all previous ones, dating back to the 1780s. Even if the last several years will or will not prove to be a golden age for American art, it certainly became one for art in America. full text »  ▪   Anthropology of Art Art in Anthropological Context The study of the visual arts as an anthropological study calls for considering art as an aspect of culture, and using the methods and theories that anthropologists have used to study other aspects of culture, taking into consideration it great many things instead of, or in addition to, one's own personal responses to particular art forms. It means that one needs to know where the art was made, who made it, what its use was, what its functions were, and what it meant to the people who made use of it. full text »  ▪   Art Censorship Censorship of Art Though the modern crisis in art censorship coincided with the government's manipulation of federal funding, censorship of visual artists and their work was rampant in the nineteenth century as well. In post-Civil War New York, a dry-goods clerk named Anthony Comstock led a broad censorship movement that resulted in the antiobscenity law of 1873. After Comstock was appointed as a special postal inspector, he instigated the arrest of prominent art dealer Herman Knoedler, raided the Art Students League for its use of nude models, and warned that indecent photographs and paintings were mistakenly called "art." Such censorship became so common that it came to be known as "Comstockery," a term that endured well into the twentieth century. full text »  ▪   Art Forgery Art and Authenticity Forgeries of works of art present a nasty practical problem to the collector, the curator, and the art historian, who must often expend taxing amounts of time and energy in determining whether or not particular objects are genuine. But the theoretical problem raised is even more acute. The hardheaded question why there is any aesthetic difference between a deceptive forgery and an original work challenges a basic premise on which the very functions of collector, museum, and art historian depend. A philosopher of art caught without an answer to this question is at least as badly off as a curator of paintings caught taking a Van Meegeren for a Vermeer. full text »  ▪   Art History History of Art Can art have a history? We think about art as being timeless, the ‘beauty’ of its appearance having meaning, significance, and appeal to humankind across the ages. At least this usually applies to our ideas about ‘high’, or fine, art, in other words painting and sculpture. This kind of visual material can have an autonomous existence — we can enjoy looking at it for its own sake, independent of any knowledge of its context, although of course viewers from different time periods or cultures may see the same object in contrasting ways. full text »  ▪   Art Therapy Creative Art Therapy The growth of interest in creative therapy has occurred over a relatively short time. This interest has developed as a result of the successes achieved by arts specialists working in health care, rehabilitation and special education settings. Many of these successes have been unexpected, certainly not planned and, in some cases, inexplicable. Over the last ten to fifteen years, an understanding of the benefits gained from the use of the arts in healing and for health has been growing. This has occurred as more and more specialists work in this area, as more administrators are willing to experiment using the arts in their institutions and as methodological research is interwoven with anecdotal reports of the effects of this work. As a result, this mixture of experiment, research and anecdote has built a body of ideas, skills and knowledge that has at its core the essence of human existence; a need for each of us, no matter what our age or ability, to reaffirm ourselves and to communicate with others. full text »  ▪   Art and Religion Art and Religion Art and religion belong together by identities of Origin, Subject Matter, and Inner Experience. Religion and art were one and the same thing before either of them became consciously regarded as a distinct human interest. The principal subject matter of the world's artistic treasures is religious. The experience of faith and the experience of beauty are in some measure identical. In these three ways there is displayed the unity of religion and art. I am not here interested to elaborate them, but the numbers of religious leaders who have no interest in the arts, and the numbers of artists who have no participation in the life of definite religion need all to be made aware of these facts. full text »  ▪   Art in Third Reich Art in Third Reich It is possible to gain an overview of artists during the Third Reich because they were regulated by the professional organization, the Reich Chamber for the Visual Arts. Although this neocorporatist body turned professionalization models on their head because the organization stemmed from above, rather than from the members themselves, there can be no doubt about a professional identity for the vast majority of the practicing artists during the Third Reich. The Reich Chamber for the Visual Arts was designated a public law corporation and, as such, had the power to regulate the issues that were important to the artists' professional livelihood: training, economic conditions, awards, among others. full text »  ▪   Art of Ancient Greece Art of Ancient Greece With the destruction of Knossos in approximately 1400 B.C. the chain of historical events is interrupted. But this does not constitute the end of the first epoch in European history - an epoch that lasts up to the time when metals found their way into the Aegean. This is already evident from the fact that the Bronze Age continues in this area for another three hundred years at least. In art history, too, the Minoan style is still predominant in this phase. The centre of development has shifted from Crete to the Greek mainland. Thus production now spreads to the whole Aegean - whereas in the Palace period it was concentrated in Crete. From the time of Schliemann onwards the term 'Mycenaean culture' has been common usage in regard to the developments to be dealt with here. It would also be possible to speak of a Late Bronze Age in the Aegean. But the decisive factor in determining the different character of these three centuries is not the shift in area but the fact that a different people has now taken over the lead. full text »  ▪   Aztec and Mayan Art Aztec and Mayan Art Hernan Cortes' expedition of conquest, an undertaking of world-wide significance, was aimed with astonishing accuracy at the heart of the native civilizations of Central America. The maneuvers of his fleet prior to the landing at Vera Cruz, upon which he set his seal by scuttling the ships, show how systematically the white conqueror and inheritor of the Aztec realm reconnoitered the foreign coasts before deciding to stake everything upon a single throw: his rapid march to the Valley of Mexico and against Tenochtitan, the present-day Mexico city. The enterprise proved as successful as it had been daring. Within two years the Aztec capital was firmly in Spanish hands. This meant that by 1521 Cortes controlled a territory stretching from the Panuco river in the north to the border of what is now Guatemala; at the same time certain neighbouring provinces which were not under Aztec rule, namely the so-called Kingdom of Michoacan in the north-west and the areas to the south inhabited by the Maya and Quiche peoples, fell easy prey. Twenty years later the conquerors held this large territory under their sway, whereby they suppressed the natural customs of the indigenous population and made them subject to a Catholic-ridden Spain which was already moving toward a mercantile system based on colonial exploitation. full text »  ▪   Baroque Art European Baroque Art As an artistic style, mannerism conformed to a divided outlook on life which was, nevertheless, spread uniformly all over Western Europe; the baroque is the expression of an intrinsically more homogeneous worldview, but one which assumes a variety of shapes in the different European countries. full text »  ▪   Carolingian Art Carolingian Art When the Canterbury illuminations at which we were looking towards the end of my second lecture were made, Charlemagne had already succeeded his father, who died in the year 768. During the next four decades he so extended his empire that it reached the Elbe in Germany and the Ebro in Spain; and included Bavaria, Lombardy and part of Carinthia. When he died in 814 it was as ' Augustus, Crowned by God, the great and peace bringing emperor of the Romans'. In crowning him with this title in the year 800, the Pope had offered him the 'adoration' due to an emperor, and before he died, Charles's claim to the imperial title was recognized by the Emperor of the East. full text »  ▪   Edgar Degas Edgar Degas Born Hilaire-Germain-Edgar Degas on July 19, 1834, in Paris, France. A member of an upper-class family (his father was a banker), Degas was originally intended to practice law, which he studied for a time after finishing secondary school. In 1855, however, he enrolled at the famous École des Beaux-Arts, or School of Fine Arts, in Paris, where he studied under Louis Lamothe, a pupil of the classical painter Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres. In order to supplement his art studies, Degas traveled extensively, including trips to Naples, Florence, and Rome (where he lived for three years), in order to observe and copy the works of such Renaissance masters as Sandro Botticelli, Andrea Mantegna, and Nicolas Poussin. From his early classical education, Degas learned a good deal about drawing figures, a skill he used to complete some impressive family portraits before 1860, notably The Belleli Family (1859). full text »  ▪   English Abstract Art Abstract Painting and Sculpture in England The development of purely abstract painting and sculpture in England has been intimately connected with that on the Continent with one major exception. As far back as 1840 Turner had given a hint of what was to come in the visual arts by painting in a way which was entirely revolutionary. In his last works Turner developed an aesthetic based on the illumination of space as opposed to that of substance, thereby giving to empty space a positive character which the traditional emphasis on the illumination of substance had denied it. This new vision of space, however, necessitated a new form of representation; for space cannot be outlined like substance. For the first time, therefore, the content was expressed 'equivalently' rather than illusionistically or symbolically, thus forcing the spectator to depend more than ever before on the plastic qualities of the painting itself. full text »  ▪   Kandinsky Wassily Kandinsky Wassily Kandinsky was born on 4 December 1866, which is fifteen years before Picasso, and we should perhaps note for whatever significance it may have that his father's family came from Siberia, and that his father was actually born at Kjachta near the Chinese frontier. One of his great-grandmothers was an Asiatic princess. His mother's family, however, came from Moscow, where Kandinsky himself was born. full text »  ▪   Monet and Impressionism Monet and Impressionism Monet and Renoir visited La Grenouillère, a bathing resort on the Seine outside of Paris, where the two of them painted outdoors. The optical experience of sunlight falling on rippling water was recorded on canvas by different brushstrokes. Monet intended to use these riverside paintings to develop other canvases. These paintings marked a turning point in the history of the Impressionist landscape. The more Monet developed his interest in the landscape painting the more he distanced himself from his bohemian lifestyle and his friends in Paris (Welton). full text »  ▪   Rococo Period Rococo Period ...It is evident through this painting that Rococo art tends to avoid straight lines and classical symmetry and favors curves, unusual balances, and an abundance of ornamental detail. The structure of Rococo appealed to the newly emerging mercantile class and the aristocrats, who in a bid to ignore the growing unrest, devoted there lives to pleasure and used such paintings as a release from the realities of that day. The Neo classical period was at its height between 1750 and 1880. When the French Revolution occurred French painting returned to a moral and political purpose. Neoclassicism was embraced as the style of the period. The excesses of the Rococo period - all the lavish scenes of wealth - were dropped for a more "classical" type of painting, as they had now turned away from the light hearted and pretty subject matter. The artists of this time sought to paint themes of virtue, pride, and personal sacrifice. In this type of painting, the artist painted with restraint and discipline and the composition is balanced, colours bright, and the work has more soul. full text »  ▪   Roman Portrait Sculpture Roman Portrait Sculpture A portrait is a painting, photograph, or other artistic representation of a person. Portraits are often simple head shots or mug shots and are not usually overly elaborate or creative. The intent is to show the basic appearance of the person, and occasionally some artistic insight into his or her personality. The art of the portrait flourished in Roman sculptures, where sitters demanded realistic portraits, even unflattering ones. During the 4th century, the portrait began to retreat in favor of an idealized symbol of what that person looked like. full text »  ▪   Romanesque Art Romanesque Art Among all the great styles known to the history of European art the Romanesque was the last to receive system recognition. The generation which experienced that tremendous "rebirth" which has come to be known as the Renaissance itself already spoke of the revival of a more ancient language of forms, and it is well known that at that time the phenomenon of Gothic art was recognized as a style--though with an underlying rejection and condemnation. And it was exactly the same with the Baroque style. This style was determined by protest against it, having been formulated by men of the late eighteenth century who indignantly defined as "Baroque" the style that was just going out of fashion. If the men of the twelfth century had cared to define and characterize the phenomenon which nowadays we call Romanesque, their definition might well have been found in the protest of Bernard of Clairvaux. However, the first great experience of this art was granted to the generation of the French Romantics. full text »  ▪   Stone Age Art Stone Age Art World art does not start with the works of the advanced cultures of Mesopotamia and the Nile valley. Its roots lie much further back, in the earliest origins of human history. Works of art were already produced by prehistoric man, as they are by the primitive peoples that still exist in the world today. Fortunately for us many of these early works have been preserved up to modern times. In the majority of cases they are rock pictures executed by Stone Age hunters who were highly-specialized artists. full text »  ▪   Surrealism Surrealism Surrealism, born in Paris in 1924, was defined by its founder, André Breton, as "pure psychic automatism, by which it is intended to express, verbally, in writing or by other means, the real process of thought. It is thought's dictation, all exercise of reason and every aesthetic or moral preoccupation being absent." It is apparent that surrealism is less a style than it is a program and a method. Its program is a serious search for the material of art in the subconscious mind, in dreams and hallucinations, in the irrational and atavistic layers of being. Its method is the most spontaneous possible transference of the images uncovered to canvas without consideration of form or design (automatism). Surrealism is an artistic parallel to Freud's researches, though on an intuitive rather than analytical level. full text »  ▪   Victorian Architecture Victorian Architects Unlike Victorian novelists and painters, architects needed very large sums of money in order to realize their ideas. In their case patrons combined the roles which publishers and readers together occupied in the field of literature. But like the novelists and painters, Victorian architects also inhabited a specific time and place. New building techniques and materials, a transition from craftsmen to contractors, the growth of middle-class demand, the need to design building types for an industrializing and urbanizing population, all pressed hard upon them and added to the complexities created by their own often bewildering discoveries in the field of architectural history. full text »  ▪   Vincent Van Gogh The Symbolism of Vincent van Gogh's Flowers Van Gogh painted some of the world's most expensive flowers. The National Gallery in Washington received a bouquet of roses, donated and valued at $60 million. Still more of van Gogh's flowers are evident in the background of the Portrait of Joseph Roulin, recently acquired by the Museum of Modem Art, as part of an exchange for seven paintings in the museum's collection. It is no coincidence that four of van Gogh's flower paintings have been in the news. Van Gogh painted and drew hundreds of images of flowers. The titles and descriptions of these images in his letters refer to over sixty different species of flowers. He depicted gardens burgeoning with flowers, orchards in bloom, vases of flowers, people holding flowers and people seated against flowery wallpaper. He painted flowers accurately, energetically, lovingly and with specific intent. full text »  Don't hesitate! 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